Noun Phrases Used in Isolation and Sentence Particles

§228. NOUNS USED IN ISOLATION Nouns, pronouns, and infinitives may appear outside the main sentence structure for emphatic or exclamatory effect: INFINITIVE as exclamation or rhetorical question: oku-tanga! = Reading! (what a thing — to read!) ha-'ku-tanga-ko? = Not reading? (I'm not reading!) ha-'ku-tunga-ko! = Not working! (I am certainly working!) SUBSTANTIVE used in apposition for emphasis: ombambi = cold! (it is cold — the noun alone expresses the idea) osoma, eie u-asoka oku-enda = the king, he intended to go (osoma is emphatic apposition to eie) DEMONSTRATIVE for emphasis (without clear antecedent): u, sekulu, u-aendele hena = this one, the nobleman, he went yesterday (u = demonstrative placed for emphasis) SUBJECT-PRONOUN in isolation (not grammatically linked): ame, omona'ange u-atila = I — my son fled (ame has no grammatical concordance with the sentence; it marks topic/perspective) §229. SENTENCE PARTICLES AND ENCLITICS -no (verb suffix) = only, just (restrictive): ndi-feta-no = I only pay (I pay and nothing else) -vo (verb suffix) = also, too: u-aenda-vo = he also went -le (conjunction suffix) = and, also: ame-le = and I, I too -ko (negation suffix) = not (see negative forms §201) -ale (adverbial suffix on past remote) = long ago, always: nd'-a-fetele-ale = I paid long ago / I had always paid ove u-a-ievele-ale? = have you always listened? eie u-anetele-ale? = was he always fat? ADVERBS OF TIME AND PLACE: haimo = always kalie / noke = now, presently handi = still, yet etali = today hena = yesterday/tomorrow henanha = day before yesterday / day after tomorrow ale = formerly ndopo = immediately, right now iu = then, afterwards echi = when paio / ulo = here ku / oku = there, yonder osamwa = outside p'osi = below, on the ground §230. THE PARTICLE alua (MUCH, VERY) alua functions as an adverb of degree modifying adjectives and verbs. It AGREES with the subject by taking the appropriate pronominal prefix: ochi-na chechi chi-sovi ch'-alua = this thing is very long (ch'- = chi- pronominal prefix agreeing with ochi-na) ombela i-loka-loka i-alua = the rain falls very heavily (i- agreeing with ombela, Class 5) This agreement of the degree adverb is unusual typologically and is a characteristic feature of Umbundu syntax.